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DNA ndiye maziko a moyo wonse wachilengedwe ndipo idapezeka koyamba mu 1869 ndi wasayansi waku Swiss Friedrich Miescher.Zaka 100 za kuwonjezereka kwa zinthu zinachititsa James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, ndi Maurice Wilkins mu 1953 kupanga chitsanzo chodziwika bwino cha "double helix", chopangidwa ndi maunyolo awiri omangika.Ndi kumvetsetsa komaliza kwa kapangidwe ka DNA, zinatenga zaka 50 kuti ma genome athunthu amunthu atsatidwe mu 2003 ndi Human Genome Project.
Kutsatizana kwa majenomu a munthu kumayambiriro kwa zaka chikwi ndi kusintha kwa kamvedwe kathu ka zamoyo za anthu.Pomaliza, titha kuwerenga momwe chilengedwe chimakhalira.
Kuyambira nthawi imeneyo, matekinoloje omwe tingagwiritse ntchito powerenga majeremusi a munthu apita patsogolo kwambiri.Zinatenga zaka 13 kuti atsatire ma genome oyamba, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti maphunziro ambiri asayansi amangoyang'ana mbali zina za DNA.Matupi athu onse tsopano atha kutsatizana tsiku limodzi.Kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo wotsatizana kumeneku kwadzetsa kusintha kwakukulu pakutha kumvetsetsa kwathu chibadwa cha munthu.Kufufuza kwakukulu kwa sayansi kwatithandiza kumvetsa bwino kugwirizana kwa mbali zina za DNA (majini) ndi zina mwa makhalidwe athu.Komabe, chikoka cha majini pamakhalidwe osiyanasiyana ndizovuta kwambiri: aliyense wa ife ali ndi majini pafupifupi 20,000 omwe amagwira ntchito m'magulu ovuta omwe amakhudza makhalidwe athu.
Mpaka pano, cholinga cha kafukufuku chakhala pa thanzi ndi matenda, ndipo nthawi zina tapita patsogolo kwambiri.Apa ndipamene ma genomics amakhala chida chofunikira pakumvetsetsa kwathu thanzi komanso kukula kwa matenda.Chitukuko chotsogola kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi cha genomics ku UK chimayiyika patsogolo padziko lonse lapansi malinga ndi kafukufuku wa genomic ndi kafukufuku.
Izi zawonekera mu mliri wa COVID-19, pomwe UK ikutsogolera njira yotsatizana ndi kachilombo ka SARS-CoV-2.Genomics yatsala pang'ono kukhala mzati wapakati pazachipatala ku UK.Iyenera kupereka kuzindikira msanga matenda, kuzindikira matenda osowa majini ndikuthandizira kukonza thanzi labwino kwa anthu.
Asayansi akumvetsetsa bwino momwe DNA yathu imagwirizanirana ndi machitidwe osiyanasiyana m'madera ena osati thanzi, monga ntchito, masewera ndi maphunziro.Kafukufukuyu wagwiritsa ntchito maziko a genomic opangidwira kafukufuku waumoyo, kusintha kamvedwe kathu ka momwe mikhalidwe yambiri yaumunthu imapangidwira ndikupangidwira.Ngakhale chidziwitso chathu cha genomic cha makhalidwe oipa chikukula, chimatsalira kumbuyo kwa makhalidwe abwino.
Mwayi ndi zovuta zomwe timaziwona mu genomics zaumoyo, monga kufunikira kwa uphungu wa majini kapena pamene kuyezetsa kumapereka chidziwitso chokwanira kuti atsimikizire kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake, kutsegula zenera la tsogolo lomwe lingakhalepo la ma genomics omwe si a thanzi.
Kuwonjezera pa kugwiritsidwa ntchito kowonjezereka kwa chidziwitso cha genomic mu gawo la chithandizo chamankhwala, chiwerengero chowonjezeka cha anthu chikuzindikira chidziwitso cha genomic kudzera m'makampani apadera omwe amapereka chithandizo mwachindunji kwa ogula.Pandalama zolipirira, makampaniwa amapatsa anthu mwayi woti aphunzire za makolo awo komanso kudziwa zambiri zamakhalidwe osiyanasiyana.
Kukula kwa chidziwitso kuchokera ku kafukufuku wapadziko lonse lapansi kwapangitsa kuti matekinoloje atsopano apite patsogolo, ndipo kulondola komwe tingathe kulosera zaumunthu kuchokera ku DNA kukukulirakulira.Kupitilira kumvetsetsa, tsopano ndizotheka mwaukadaulo kusintha ma jini ena.
Ngakhale kuti genomics ili ndi kuthekera kosintha mbali zambiri za anthu, kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kumatha kubwera ndi ziwopsezo zamakhalidwe, deta komanso chitetezo.Padziko lonse lapansi ndi mayiko, kagwiritsidwe ntchito ka genomics kumayendetsedwa ndi malangizo angapo odzipereka komanso malamulo ochulukirapo osati makamaka a genomics, monga General Data Protection Law.Pamene mphamvu za genomics zikukula komanso kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kukukulirakulira, maboma akuyang'anizana ndi kusankha ngati njira iyi idzapitirizabe kugwirizanitsa ma genomics mumagulu.Kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zosiyanasiyana zaku UK pazomangamanga ndi kafukufuku wa genomics kudzafunika kuyesetsa kogwirizana ndi boma ndi mafakitale.
Ngati mungathe kudziwa ngati mwana wanu akhoza kuchita bwino pamasewera kapena maphunziro, kodi mungatero?
Awa ndi ena mwa mafunso omwe tikuyenera kukumana nawo posachedwa pomwe sayansi ya genomic imatipatsa chidziwitso chochulukirapo chokhudza majenomu amunthu komanso gawo lomwe limagwira pakuwongolera mikhalidwe ndi machitidwe athu.
Zambiri zokhudza chibadwa cha munthu—mndandanda wake wapadera wa deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—zikugwiritsidwa kale ntchito pozindikira matenda ena ndi kupatsa munthu chithandizo.Koma tikuyambanso kumvetsetsa momwe ma genome amakhudzira makhalidwe ndi makhalidwe a anthu kupitirira thanzi.
Pali kale umboni wosonyeza kuti genome imakhudza makhalidwe omwe si a thanzi monga kutenga chiopsezo, kupanga zinthu ndi kugwiritsa ntchito.Pamene tikuphunzira zambiri za momwe majini amakhudzira makhalidwe, tikhoza kudziwiratu momwe munthu angapangire makhalidwewo malinga ndi momwe ma jini amayendera.
Izi zikudzutsa mafunso ofunika angapo.Kodi mfundozi zimagwiritsidwa ntchito bwanji?Kodi izi zikutanthauza chiyani kwa anthu athu?Kodi ndondomeko ziyenera kusinthidwa bwanji m'magawo osiyanasiyana?Kodi tikufuna malamulo ena?Kodi tidzathana bwanji ndi nkhani zamakhalidwe abwino zomwe zadzutsidwa, kuthana ndi kuopsa kwa tsankho komanso kuwopseza chinsinsi?
Ngakhale zina mwazinthu zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito pa genomics sizingachitike pakanthawi kochepa kapena ngakhale pang'ono, njira zatsopano zogwiritsira ntchito chidziwitso cha genomic zikufufuzidwa lero.Izi zikutanthauza kuti ino ndi nthawi yolosera zam'tsogolo momwe ma genomics adzagwiritsire ntchito.Tiyeneranso kuganizira zomwe zingachitike ngati ntchito za genomic zitha kupezeka kwa anthu sayansi isanakonzekere.Izi zidzatilola kulingalira moyenerera mwayi ndi zoopsa zomwe ma genomics atsopanowa angapereke ndikuwona zomwe tingachite poyankha.
Lipotili limayambitsa ma genomics kwa omwe si akatswiri, limayang'ana momwe sayansi yasinthira, ndikuyesa kulingalira momwe imakhudzira magawo osiyanasiyana.Lipotili likuyang'ana zomwe zingakhale zikuchitika panopa komanso zomwe zingachitike m'tsogolomu, ndikufufuza komwe mphamvu ya genomics ingakhale yowonjezereka.
Genomics si nkhani yazaumoyo chabe.Izi zitha kukhudza magawo osiyanasiyana a mfundo, kuyambira pamaphunziro ndi chilungamo chaupandu mpaka pantchito ndi inshuwaransi.Lipotili likuyang'ana kwambiri za ma genomics omwe siathanzi.Akuyang'ananso kugwiritsa ntchito ma genome muulimi, ecology ndi synthetic biology kuti amvetsetse kukula kwa momwe angagwiritsire ntchito madera ena.
Komabe, zambiri zomwe timadziwa zokhudza ma genomics aumunthu zimachokera ku kafukufuku wofufuza ntchito yake pa thanzi ndi matenda.Thanzi ndi malo omwe ntchito zambiri zomwe zingatheke zikupangidwira.Ndipamene tiyambire, ndipo Mitu 2 ndi 3 ikuwonetsa sayansi ndi chitukuko cha genomics.Izi zimapereka chidziwitso cha gawo la genomics ndikupereka chidziwitso chaukadaulo chofunikira kumvetsetsa momwe ma genomics amakhudzira madera omwe siaumoyo.Owerenga omwe alibe luso laukadaulo angathe kulumpha mawu oyambawa ku Mitu 4, 5, ndi 6, yomwe ikupereka zomwe zili mu lipotili.
Kwa nthawi yaitali anthu akhala akuchita chidwi ndi majini athu komanso ntchito yomwe imagwira pakupanga kwathu.Timafuna kumvetsetsa momwe majini amakhudzira maonekedwe athu, thanzi, umunthu, makhalidwe ndi luso, ndi momwe zimagwirizanirana ndi chilengedwe.
£ 4 biliyoni, zaka 13 zamtengo wapatali ndi nthawi kuti apange ndondomeko yoyamba ya majeremusi aumunthu (mtengo wosinthidwa ndi inflation).
Genomics ndi kafukufuku wa ma genome a zamoyo - ma DNA awo athunthu - komanso momwe majini athu onse amagwirira ntchito limodzi muzinthu zathu zachilengedwe.M'zaka za m'ma 1900, kafukufuku wa ma genomes nthawi zambiri ankangoyang'ana mapasa kuti aphunzire udindo wa chibadwa ndi chilengedwe mu maonekedwe a thupi ndi khalidwe (kapena "chirengedwe ndi kulera").Komabe, pakati pa zaka za m'ma 2000 adadziwika ndi kusindikizidwa koyamba kwa majeremusi aumunthu ndi chitukuko cha teknoloji yofulumira komanso yotsika mtengo ya genomic.
Njirazi zikutanthawuza kuti ochita kafukufuku amatha kuphunzira chibadwa cha chibadwa mwachindunji, pamtengo wotsika kwambiri komanso nthawi.Kusanja majenomu onse a munthu, kumene kale kunkatenga zaka zambiri ndipo kumawononga ndalama zokwana mapaundi mabiliyoni, tsopano kumatenga nthawi yosakwana tsiku limodzi ndipo kumawononga pafupifupi £800 [mawu a m'munsi 1].Ofufuza tsopano atha kusanthula ma genomes a anthu mazana kapena kulumikizana ndi mabanki a bio omwe ali ndi chidziwitso chokhudza ma genome a anthu masauzande ambiri.Zotsatira zake, deta ya genomic ikusonkhanitsidwa mochuluka kuti igwiritsidwe ntchito pofufuza.
Mpaka pano, ma genomics akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka pazachipatala komanso kafukufuku wamankhwala.Mwachitsanzo, kuzindikiritsa kupezeka kwa mitundu yolakwika ya majini, monga mtundu wa BRCA1 wokhudzana ndi khansa ya m'mawere.Izi zitha kulola chithandizo choyambirira chodzitetezera, chomwe sichikanatheka popanda kudziwa za genome.Komabe, pamene kumvetsetsa kwathu za genomics kwakula, zakhala zikuwonekeratu kuti chikoka cha matupi athu chimapitilira kutali ndi thanzi ndi matenda.
M’zaka 20 zapitazi, kufunitsitsa kuti timvetsetse mmene majini athu anapangidwira kwapita patsogolo kwambiri.Tayamba kumvetsa mmene majeremusi amagwirira ntchito, komabe pali zambiri zoti tiphunzire.
Kuyambira m’zaka za m’ma 1950, timadziwa kuti DNA yathu ndi code yomwe ili ndi malangizo a mmene maselo amapangira mapuloteni.Jini lililonse limafanana ndi puloteni yosiyana yomwe imatsimikizira makhalidwe a chamoyo (monga mtundu wa maso kapena kukula kwa maluwa).DNA imatha kukhudza makhalidwe kudzera m’njira zosiyanasiyana: jini imodzi imatha kudziwa khalidwe linalake (mwachitsanzo, mtundu wa magazi a ABO), majini angapo amatha kuchita zinthu mogwirizana (mwachitsanzo, kukula kwa khungu ndi kupangika kwa mtundu), kapena jini ina imatha kuloŵana, kubisa mphamvu zamitundu yosiyanasiyana. majini.majini.majini ena (monga dazi ndi mtundu wa tsitsi).
Makhalidwe ambiri amakhudzidwa ndi machitidwe ambiri (mwina masauzande) a magawo osiyanasiyana a DNA.Koma kusintha kwa DNA yathu kumayambitsa kusintha kwa mapuloteni, zomwe zingayambitse kusinthika.Ndilo dalaivala wamkulu wa kusiyanasiyana kwachilengedwe, kusiyanasiyana ndi matenda.Kusintha kwa masinthidwe kungapangitse munthu kukhala ndi ubwino kapena kuipa, kukhala wosalowerera ndale, kapena kukhala wopanda mphamvu.Zitha kuperekedwa m'mabanja kapena kuchokera ku pakati.Komabe, zikachitika akakula, kaŵirikaŵiri zimenezi zimawalepheretsa kuonana ndi anthu osati ana awo.
Kusiyanasiyana kwa makhalidwe kungakhudzidwenso ndi machitidwe a epigenetic.Angathe kulamulira ngati majini amayatsidwa kapena kuzimitsidwa.Mosiyana ndi kusintha kwa majini, amatha kusintha ndipo mbali ina amadalira chilengedwe.Izi zikutanthauza kuti kumvetsetsa chomwe chimayambitsa khalidwe si nkhani yongophunzira kumene chibadwa chimakhudza khalidwe lililonse.Ndikofunikira kulingalira za majini pamtundu wokulirapo, kumvetsetsa maukonde ndi kuyanjana kwamtundu wonse, komanso gawo la chilengedwe.
Ukadaulo wa genomic ungagwiritsidwe ntchito kudziwa momwe chibadwa chamunthu chimayendera.Njirazi tsopano zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri m'maphunziro ambiri ndipo zikuperekedwa kwambiri ndi makampani amalonda kuti afufuze thanzi kapena makolo.Njira zomwe makampani kapena ochita kafukufuku amagwiritsa ntchito pozindikira chibadwa cha munthu zimasiyanasiyana, koma mpaka posachedwapa, njira yotchedwa DNA microarraying inali kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri.Ma Microarray amayesa magawo a jini la munthu m'malo mowerenga motsatira.M'mbuyomu, ma microchips akhala osavuta, othamanga, komanso otsika mtengo kuposa njira zina, koma kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo kuli ndi malire.
Deta ikasonkhanitsidwa, imatha kuwerengedwa pamlingo waukulu pogwiritsa ntchito maphunziro a genome-wide association (kapena GWAS).Maphunzirowa akuyang'ana mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya majini yokhudzana ndi mikhalidwe ina.Komabe, mpaka pano, ngakhale maphunziro akuluakulu awonetsa kachigawo kakang'ono chabe ka zotsatira za majini zomwe zimakhala ndi makhalidwe ambiri poyerekeza ndi zomwe tingayembekezere kuchokera ku maphunziro amapasa.Kulephera kuzindikira zizindikiro zonse zachibadwa za khalidwe limadziwika kuti vuto la "missing heritability".[Mawu a M'munsi 2]
Komabe, kuthekera kwa GWAS kuzindikira mitundu yofananira ya ma genetic kumakhala bwino ndi deta yochulukirapo, kotero vuto la kusowa kwa cholowa litha kuthetsedwa pomwe ma data ochulukirapo amasonkhanitsidwa.
Kuonjezera apo, pamene ndalama zikupitirira kutsika komanso luso lamakono likupitilirabe, ofufuza ambiri akugwiritsa ntchito njira yotchedwa whole genome sequencing m'malo mwa microarrays.Izi zimawerengera molunjika dongosolo lonse la ma genome m'malo mongotsatira pang'ono.Kutsatizana kumatha kuthana ndi zoletsa zambiri zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi ma microarrays, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale chidziwitso chochuluka komanso chodziwitsa zambiri.Deta iyi ikuthandiziranso kuchepetsa vuto la kusakhala ndi cholowa, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti tikuyamba kuphunzira zambiri za majini omwe amagwira ntchito limodzi kuti akhudze makhalidwe.
Momwemonso, kusonkhanitsa kwamitundu yonse yamitundu yonse yomwe yakonzedweratu pazaumoyo wa anthu ipereka zidziwitso zochulukirapo komanso zodalirika pakufufuza.Izi zidzapindulitsa anthu amene amaphunzira makhalidwe abwino ndi oipa.
Pamene tikuphunzira zambiri za momwe majini amakhudzira makhalidwe, tikhoza kudziwiratu momwe majini amagwirira ntchito limodzi pa khalidwe linalake.Izi zimachitika pophatikiza zotsatira zoyipa kuchokera ku majini angapo kukhala muyeso umodzi wa udindo wa chibadwa, womwe umadziwika kuti polygenic score.Zotsatira za Polygenic zimakonda kukhala zolosera zolondola za kuthekera kwa munthu kukhala ndi chikhalidwe kuposa ma genetic marker.
Maphunziro a Polygenic pakali pano akupeza kutchuka mu kafukufuku wa zaumoyo ndi cholinga cha tsiku limodzi kuwagwiritsa ntchito kuti atsogolere chithandizo chamankhwala payekha.Komabe, kuchuluka kwa ma polygenic ndi ochepa ndi GWAS, kotero ambiri sananeneretu zomwe amawafunira molondola, ndipo kuchuluka kwa polygenic pakukula kumakwaniritsa kulondola kwa 25% kokha.[Mawu a M'munsi patsamba 3] Izi zikutanthauza kuti zizindikiro zina sizingakhale zolondola mofanana ndi njira zina zodziwira matenda monga kuyesa magazi kapena MRI.Komabe, monga momwe ma genomic data ikukulirakulira, kulondola kwa kuyerekezera kwa polygenicity kuyeneranso kusintha.M'tsogolomu, ziwerengero za polygenic zingapereke chidziwitso cha chiopsezo chachipatala kale kuposa zida zodziwira matenda, ndipo momwemonso zingagwiritsidwe ntchito kulosera zomwe sizili za thanzi.
Koma, monga njira iliyonse, ili ndi malire.Cholepheretsa chachikulu cha GWAS ndi kusiyanasiyana kwa data yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito, zomwe sizikuwonetsa kusiyanasiyana kwa anthu onse.Kafukufuku wasonyeza kuti mpaka 83% ya ma GWAS amachitidwa m'magulu ochokera ku Europe kokha.[Mawu a M'munsi patsamba 4] Zimenezi n’zoonekeratu kuti n’zovuta chifukwa zikutanthauza kuti GWAS imagwira ntchito kwa anthu ena okha.Choncho, chitukuko ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mayesero owonetseratu zochokera ku zotsatira za GWAS zokondera za anthu kungayambitse tsankho kwa anthu omwe ali kunja kwa GWAS.
Kwa makhalidwe omwe si a thanzi, zolosera zochokera ku polygenic scores panopa ndizochepa kwambiri kuposa zomwe zilipo zomwe sizili za genomic.Mwachitsanzo, ziwerengero za polygenic zolosera kukwaniritsidwa kwamaphunziro (imodzi mwazinthu zamphamvu kwambiri za polygenic zomwe zilipo) sizophunzitsa zambiri poyerekeza ndi njira zosavuta zamaphunziro a makolo.[Mawu a M'munsi patsamba 5] Mphamvu yolosera za kuchuluka kwa ma polygenic idzawonjezeka mosapeŵeka pamene kukula ndi kusiyana kwa maphunziro, komanso kafukufuku wozikidwa pa ndondomeko yonse ya majeremusi, zikuwonjezeka.
Kafukufuku wa genome amayang'ana kwambiri ma genomics a thanzi ndi matenda, kuthandizira kuzindikira mbali za ma genome zomwe zimakhudza chiwopsezo cha matenda.Zomwe timadziwa za udindo wa genomics zimadalira matendawa.Kwa matenda ena amtundu umodzi, monga matenda a Huntington, tingathe kuneneratu molondola kuti munthu akhoza kudwala matendawa pogwiritsa ntchito deta yawo ya genomic.Kwa matenda omwe amayamba chifukwa cha majini ambiri kuphatikizapo zochitika zachilengedwe, monga matenda a mtima, kulondola kwa maulosi a genomic kunali kochepa kwambiri.Nthawi zambiri, matenda kapena chikhalidwe chovuta kwambiri, zimakhala zovuta kumvetsetsa ndikudziwiratu.Komabe, kulondola kolosera kumakula pamene magulu omwe amaphunziridwa akukula komanso osiyanasiyana.
UK ili patsogolo pakufufuza za thanzi la genomics.Tapanga zida zazikulu muukadaulo wa genomic, nkhokwe za kafukufuku ndi mphamvu zamakompyuta.UK yathandizira kwambiri chidziwitso chapadziko lonse lapansi, makamaka panthawi ya mliri wa COVID-19 pomwe tidatsogolera njira yotsatirira kachilombo ka SARS-CoV-2 ndi mitundu yatsopano.
Genome UK ndi njira yofunitsitsa yaku UK ya thanzi la ma genomic, pomwe NHS ikuphatikiza kutsatana kwa ma genome mu chisamaliro chanthawi zonse cha matenda osowa, khansa kapena matenda opatsirana.[Mawu a M'munsi 6]
Izi zipangitsanso kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa chiwerengero cha majeremusi aumunthu omwe amapezeka kuti afufuzidwe.Izi ziyenera kulola kafukufuku wambiri ndikutsegula mwayi watsopano wogwiritsa ntchito ma genomics.Monga mtsogoleri wapadziko lonse lapansi pakupanga ma data a genomic ndi zomangamanga, UK ili ndi kuthekera kokhala mtsogoleri wapadziko lonse pazachikhalidwe komanso kuwongolera sayansi ya genomic.
Zida zoyezera majini za Direct Consumption (DTC) zimagulitsidwa mwachindunji kwa ogula popanda kukhudzidwa ndi azaumoyo.Masamba a saliva amatumizidwa kuti akawunikidwe, kupatsa ogula kuwunika kwamunthu payekha kapena kuwunika koyambira m'masabata ochepa chabe.Msikawu ukukula mwachangu, ndipo ogula mamiliyoni ambiri padziko lonse lapansi akutumiza zitsanzo za DNA kuti zitsatidwe kuti adziwe za thanzi lawo, mibadwo yawo komanso momwe amapangira majini.
Kulondola kwa ma analytics ena a genome omwe amapereka chithandizo mwachindunji kwa ogula akhoza kukhala otsika kwambiri.Mayesero amathanso kukhudza zinsinsi zaumwini pogawana deta, kuzindikira achibale, komanso kutha kwa ma protocol a cybersecurity.Makasitomala sangamvetse bwino izi akamalumikizana ndi kampani yoyesa ya DTC.
Kuyesa kwamtundu wa DTCs kwa omwe si azachipatala nakonso kulibe malamulo.Amadutsa malamulo oyendetsera kuyezetsa ma genomic azachipatala ndipo m'malo mwake amadalira kudziletsa modzifunira kwa opereka mayeso.Ambiri mwamakampaniwa alinso kunja kwa UK ndipo samayendetsedwa ku UK.
Mayendedwe a DNA ali ndi mphamvu yapadera mu sayansi yazamalamulo kuti azindikire anthu osadziwika.Kusanthula kwa DNA kwakhala kukugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri kuyambira kupangidwa kwa zolemba zala za DNA mu 1984, ndipo UK National DNA Database (NDNAD) ili ndi mbiri yamunthu 5.7 miliyoni ndi zolemba 631,000 zaumbanda.[Mawu a M'munsi 8]
Nthawi yotumiza: Feb-14-2023